Display Technology: A Framework

This series explores display technology broadly with a specific focus on the interests of designers and users. In some ways display technology has always been a part of public life from the earliest analog origins through to the completely digital  immersive spaces that have opened up in major cities in the past decade. All of these efforts were dependent on the availability of major components from larger industries. While early efforts in electric display were entirely dependent upon borrowing parts from the electric lighting market, more recent work in creative display has borrowed technologies and adapted parts from the consumer display and consumer entertainment (Film and TV) markets. That context is critical to an understanding of where our industry sits in the tech stack and how the future may unfold. 

THE INTRODUCTION includes two sections that will evolve over time both in response to information added in later sections and in response to feedback from the frame:work community. 

The TIMELINE gives us a way of locating events along a consistent chronological arc and this is important to understanding how quickly things can change. For example, in the 1940’s at an RCA cathode ray tube factory in Lancaster PA the tubes were washed by hand as an automated system suitable for mass production had not been introduced to that factory. This was seventy years ago and CRTs were actively produced a short ride from Philadelphia. The rise and fall of the CRT market along with the rise of the LCD market have all happened over an incredibly short period of time. 

The GLOSSARY is an alphabetical set of terms that are relevant to those who use display technology in their creative and technical lives. The goal here is not to offer the best definition of a term or to limit how some technical terms are used but rather to add useful context to conversations and to act as a balm in circumstances when some corporate PR departments drift from the one true path and use terms in a way that confuses clients and customers.

The balance of the document will be presented in seven sections. Please note that these sections will not be posted in a linear fashion but where possible the more detailed work will be posted after more foundational information is posted. 

Part 1: Foundations of Display Technology

• Basic principles: how images are created electronically
• The pixel as the fundamental unit
• Color theory and reproduction (RGB, color spaces)
• Resolution, refresh rates, and other key specifications
• Display drivers and signal processing

Part 2: Major Display Technologies and Their Evolution

• Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs): The original electronic displays
• Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): Passive vs. Active Matrix
• The critical role of Thin Film Transistors (TFTs) in enabling modern flat panels
• Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs): Self-emissive technology
• LED and modular display architecture
• Projection technologies: DLP, LCD, LCOS, laser
• Alternative display technologies: Summarized with links to Blair Neal’s most excellent document

Part 3: Displays by Application – Design Considerations

• Monitors vs. Televisions: Panel differences, processing, and optimization goals
• Large format displays: LED walls, digital signage
• Specialized displays: Medical, automotive, outdoor, avionics
• Virtual and Augmented Reality displays

Part 4: The Display Ecosystem

• Supply chain and manufacturing considerations
• Panel fabrication technologies
• The role of semiconductors in display advancement
• Standards and connectivity (HDMI, DisplayPort, etc.)
• Color calibration and image processing

Part 5: Future Display Technologies

• Emerging technologies: MicroLED, photonic crystals, transparent displays
• Driver architectures of current displays and their limitations
• Display technology lifetimes and the concept of archival displays
• The challenge of innovating at scale

Part 6: The Human Element

• Visual perception and display technology

Part 7: Appendixes – Articles, Interviews, and supporting documentation
Many of these are existing articles that will be updated for inclusion in this series. 

• Modular Display History: Barco and Robbie Thielemans (updated)
• Modular Display History: Frederic Opsomer (updated)
• Modular Display History: Saco, Tait, and Nocturne Interview
• Modular Display History: The Shenzhen Public Frame (updated)
• Modular Display History: Michael Hao and InfiLED (updated)
• Modular Display History: Jason Lu and ROE  (updated)
• Modular Display History: Modular Architecture and Creative Display (updated)
• Modular Display History: Other Interviews 
• Modular Display History: Element Labs
• Links and Additional Content

This document is not intended for professional display technology audiences although they may find some value in it. While there will be technical information the subject matter will be framed in such a way that an audience on the applications side can make use of it. Where there are resources available the more technical sections of the document will include links. 

It is highly likely that, in the process of digesting and organizing the large quantity of information included in this document, that mistakes will be made and attributions will be missed.

INTRODUCTION: Display Technology Timeline

The goal of this section is to provide a framework for looking at future display applications in the context of historical trends, and to provide a greater general understanding of existing technologies and how they can be used. This is particularly important, given the increasing scale and complexity of the supply chain. There are those that there will be a trend toward the localization of electronics production however the industry has tended to consolidate around the companies with high yields and the most efficient processes. Historically the factories operated by the remaining successful companies get larger and larger. See Gen 10 LCD fabs and the massive new BOE OLED factory in Chengdu. Current LCD production has such a high level of yield (the number of displays that pass initial inspection with a number of defects small enough that it can be sold as an “A” display) that dead pixels are no longer a subject of conversation amongst laptop buyers. In the short term (5-10 years) the volumes and process engineering required to achieve that type of outcome make it hard to imagine a little neighborhood print shop will be making displays to your specifications in your city. Efforts to build out this more distributed localized industry will happen against a backdrop of global companies scaling up larger and larger display fabs as yields improve. This asymmetrical relationship between specialty displays and legacy displays needs to frame long term decisions and any predictions on the direction of the market.

THE TIMELINE

The developments highlighted in this timeline demonstrates how display technology has progressed from simple static illuminated signs to complex dynamic video systems. Many modern display technologies—including LED video walls, LCD video walls, OLED displays, and projection systems—have their roots in these earlier developments.

Key technological transitions visible in this timeline include:
– From incandescent bulbs to electronic (CRT) to digital 
– From fixed displays to programmable and video-capable systems
– From single-color to full-color capabilities
– From small static displays to immersive environments

Understanding this historical context provides valuable insight into current display technology trends and potential future directions, such as transparent displays, micro-LED technology, and flexible/foldable screens.

Early Display Technologies (1900-1930)

1888 – Electrical Baseball Bulletin patented
Edward Van Zile patents an electronic version of a system to add a remote visual accompaniment to baseball games allowing an audience to see the scores and the positions of base runners. 

1905 – Heatherbloom Petticoats Sign
One of the earliest examples of commercial electric signage, the Heatherbloom Petticoats sign utilized incandescent bulbs to create an attention-grabbing advertisement in New York City. This early illuminated display represented the beginning of using electric lighting for commercial messaging, setting the stage for future developments in display technology and signaling the start of electric advertising.

1910 – First demonstration of neon at the Paris Motor Show by Georges Claude.
The first commercial neon sign in the United States was installed at a Packard dealership in Los Angeles in 1923. Claude Neon, a French company, introduced this technology to America, revolutionizing nighttime advertising. The vibrant colors and ability to shape tubes into letters and designs made neon an instant success and established a new visual language for displays that would dominate urban landscapes for decades.

1928 – The Motograph News Bulletin (“Zipper”) at Times Square
The famous “zipper” display debuted at One Times Square, becoming an iconic feature of the New York cityscape. This scrolling text display showed headlines and news updates, representing an early form of dynamic electronic messaging. The Motograph established Times Square as a center for innovative display technologies and demonstrated the power of moving electronic information in public spaces.

Mid-Century Display Innovations (1930-1950)

1940 – First Practical Television Sets
RCA introduced the first commercially viable television sets to the American market. While experimental television broadcasts had occurred earlier, this marked the beginning of television as a consumer product and established the cathode ray tube (CRT) as the dominant display technology for visual media. This development would shape how information and entertainment were displayed for over half a century.

1943 – Eidophor projectors unveiled 
The Eidophor, developed in Switzerland in the 1940s (with the first prototype unveiled in 1943), and the GE Talaria light valve projector, development started in 1959, were revolutionary large-venue video display technologies that dominated high-end projection before modern digital systems. The projectors share the fact that they both sound like things that a person made up when they were asked, by a child, a question about a piece of equipment that they did not understand. The Eidophor, derived from Greek words meaning “image bearer,” used electrostatic charges to deform an oil surface and project theater-sized images up to 18 meters wide. The GE Talaria, derived from the Greek word for the sandals worn by Hermes, evolved from similar principles but used a rotating glass disc coated with viscous oil and modulated by an electron beam to create projections that could fill a 15×20 foot screen. Both systems used Schlieren optics, though they operated slightly differently—the Eidophor bounced light off an oil-covered mirror, while the Talaria shone light through an oil-covered glass rather than reflecting it. One particularly interesting piece of Talaria history involves Bob Loney, who repurposed a blue GE Talaria 3LV light valve projector as a base for a table that resided at Tekamaki, a company based in San Carlos. These impressive but complex machines have been replaced by modern digital projection technologies like DLP and LCD.​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

1948 – Dennis Gabor invents Holography
In one of the more perfect moments in the history of invention Dennis Gabor defines a method for recording a 3D image and coins the term holography, and then, because key elements necessary to create the hologram (lasers) had not been invented he was unable to make a hologram. Gabor coined the term Holography based on the ancient Greek word for an undelivered parcel. Holograms needed to wait for the invention of a coherent light source such as a laser. Gabor did live to see this and was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work. 

1948 – Ford hires Goodyear airship and puts ticker on it
Ford paid to put 10,000 light bulbs on a Goodyear airship for advertising. Douglas Leigh, known as the “Sign King of Broadway” for the many signs he created including the famous Eight O’Clock Coffee sign, founded a company focused on aerial advertising using illuminated displays on blimps. This innovation expanded the concept of what a “display” could be and where it could be located.

Television and Public Display Development (1950-1970)

1953 – Seymour Locks Viewgraph
Seymour Locks uses a viewgraph type overhead projector to create organic patterns of light to accompany music. This evolves into the early light shows in the 1960’s created by Bill Ham. 

1956 – Solari installs their first split flap display.
A split-flap display works using a series of modules, each containing a central spindle or axle. Around this spindle rotates a series of flaps (typically 40 or more), arranged like cards on a circular rolodex. Each flap is divided horizontally across the middle (hence “split-flap”), with half of a character on each side – the bottom half of one character on the front and the top half of the next character on the back.

When the spindle rotates, driven by a small motor, the flaps flip forward in sequence. The motion continues until the desired character appears, created by the visible combination of two adjacent flaps – the bottom half of one flap and the top half of the next flap in the sequence. The rotation is precisely controlled to stop at the exact position where the character is fully formed.

The distinctive clicking sound associated with these displays comes from each flap hitting a stop bar as it falls into position during the spindle’s rotation. This mechanical operation allows the display to maintain its state without power once the spindle stops rotating, making it energy-efficient for static displays.

Multiple spindles arranged in a grid allow for displaying words, messages, or numerical information, creating the characteristic airport and train station departure boards that Solari made famous.​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

1960 – Introduction of Electroluminescent Displays
Electroluminescent display technology was first commercially applied in products like the Aiken Numeric Display. These flat-panel displays produced light by running an electrical current through phosphor materials. Although limited in color capabilities, these early solid-state displays were important precursors to later digital display technologies, offering advantages in thinness and power consumption over CRTs. Some early TFT development was tied to electroluminescent displays. 

1961 – Ferranti-Packard Flip Displays
Flip-Disk or Flip-Dot displays were introduced by Ferranti-Packard and they called the displays both things which is just lovely. A flip-disc (or flip-dot) display operates around a central spindle or axle quite differently from a split-flap system. In this design, small circular discs are mounted on individual spindles that allow them to rotate on a horizontal axis. Each disc is typically colored differently on each side (commonly black on one side and bright yellow, white, or another high-contrast color on the other).

At the base of each spindle sits a permanent magnet attached to the disc. Nearby, an electromagnetic coil creates a magnetic field when energized. When current flows through the coil in one direction, it creates a magnetic field that interacts with the permanent magnet on the spindle, causing the disc to rotate to one position. Reversing the current direction causes the magnetic field to flip polarity, rotating the disc to show its opposite face.

The spindle mechanism allows the disc to rotate freely when actuated but maintains its position even after power is removed. This bistable characteristic makes flip-disc displays energy-efficient, as they only consume power during state changes. Multiple discs arranged in a matrix create a dot-matrix display capable of showing text, numbers, or simple graphics, with each disc representing a single pixel.​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

1964 – RCA announces LCD display
In May 1968, RCA’s historic press conference at their New York City headquarters unveiled the world’s first liquid crystal display technology. Vice president James Hillier demonstrated this breakthrough achievement and predicted its revolutionary potential, even envisioning portable flat-screen televisions. Developed by George Heilmeier’s team at RCA’s David Sarnoff Research Center in Princeton, this innovation showcased electronic control of light through liquid crystals, introducing a low-power alternative to existing display technologies. Though RCA ultimately failed to capitalize on their invention, this announcement launched what would become a transformative multi-billion dollar global industry.​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

1965 – Houston Astrodome Fair-Play Screen (Incandescent Lamps)
The Houston Astrodome installed one of the first large indoor scoreboards using matrices of incandescent lamps. This significant development in stadium display technology used hundreds of light bulbs arranged in a pattern to show game information and simple animations. The scale and visibility of this display demonstrated how large-format displays could enhance the spectator experience at sporting events.

1968 – Sony 100″ Television (Technology Unknown)
Sony demonstrated an experimental 100-inch television at the company headquarters in Tokyo, pushing the boundaries of display size for the era. Though specific technology details are limited, this represented an important milestone in scaling up electronic displays beyond typical consumer television sizes, pointing toward future developments in large-format display technology for both consumer and commercial applications.

Display Technology Innovations (1970-1980)

1972 – Stewart-Warner Instant Replay Screen 
Stewart-Warner installed one of the first video instant replay screens at Arrowhead Stadium, revolutionizing the sports viewing experience. This system allowed spectators to see replays of key moments during games, fundamentally changing how people experienced sporting events and establishing video displays as essential components of modern sports venues.

1972 – ELIN Screen in Moscow (Conventional Lamps)
The ELIN (“Electronic Informant”) screen in Moscow utilized conventional lamps in a matrix arrangement to create a large public information display. Installed in the mid-1980s, the ELIN 2 screen measured 17×13 meters with a resolution of 192×144 pixels and 16 color gradations. This Soviet-era technology demonstrated an approach to large displays using readily available lighting components, becoming a significant landmark in Moscow and showing how different regions developed parallel display solutions.

1973 – Sharp produce first LCD based calculator
Sharp introduced the first LCD pocket calculator, the EL-805, which used liquid crystal display technology. This represented one of the first mass-market applications of LCD technology and demonstrated the potential for thin, low-power displays. The watch used a segment display. This development was a critical step toward the flat-panel displays that would eventually replace CRTs in most applications.

1973 – Seiko Epson introduce first LCD based digital watch
The Seiko Quartz LC V.F.A. 06LC was a groundbreaking timepiece released on October 5, 1973, and holds a significant place in horological history as the world’s first 6-digit LCD digital watch with a waterproof design and calendar function, which ultimately became the standard for subsequent digital watches. The watch used a segment display. 

1976 – Spectacolor Color Advertising Screen in NYC
Spectacolor introduced an advanced color advertising display in New York City in 1976. Founded by George Stonbely, Spectacolor pioneered the first full-color, computer-programmed, changeable message billboard, bringing vibrant electronic advertising to urban environments. This innovation introduced the concept of selling time on billboards rather than just space, transforming the outdoor advertising industry and enhancing the visual impact of Times Square.

1979 – Mitsubishi Flood Beam CRT Patent
Mitsubishi patented flood beam CRT technology, a breakthrough that would become crucial for early large-scale video displays. Unlike traditional CRTs that used focused electron beams to draw images line by line, flood beam CRTs used an unfocused electron beam to illuminate the entire phosphor screen at once, making them ideal for use as individual “pixels” in large modular displays. This technology formed the foundation for the first generation of large video screens in stadiums and public venues.

Display Developments (1980-1990)

1980 – Mitsubishi Diamond Vision
Mitsubishi Electric introduced the groundbreaking Diamond Vision system (known as Aurora Vision in Japan), the world’s first large-scale color display system for outdoor venues. First installed at Dodger Stadium for the 1980 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, this technology utilized the flood beam CRT technology Mitsubishi had patented the previous year. Each pixel in the display consisted of individual CRTs arranged in an RGBG (red, green, blue, green) pattern, with green duplicated to increase brightness since human eyes are most sensitive to green light. This innovation transformed the spectator experience at sports venues and created an entirely new market for large-format video displays.

1981 – Mitsubishi Diamond Vision used on UK Royal Wedding
Mitsubishi deployed a mobile version of its Diamond Vision technology for the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer in London. This application demonstrated the flexibility of the modular display system, bringing large-scale video capability to a one-time event rather than a permanent installation. The royal wedding showcased how portable large-format displays could enhance major public events by allowing larger audiences to view proceedings in real-time, establishing a new use case for video display technology that would become standard for significant public gatherings worldwide.

1982 – Panasonic Astrovision
Panasonic entered the large-display market with its Astrovision system, a competitor to Mitsubishi’s Diamond Vision. Using similar flood beam CRT technology, Astrovision established Panasonic as a significant player in the large-scale display industry. These systems were installed in sports venues and public spaces, further advancing the adoption of large video screens for entertainment and information purposes. The competition between Panasonic and Mitsubishi drove innovation in display quality, resolution, and reliability throughout the 1980s.

1983 – English Electric Valve Starvision
English Electric Valve Company (EEV) introduced Starvision, a British entry into the large-format display market that competed with Japanese offerings like Diamond Vision and Astrovision. Used at venues including the Oval Cricket Ground in London, Starvision represented European advancement in display technology. The system used similar principles to other large displays of the era but with EEV’s proprietary CRT technology, demonstrating how display technology innovation was occurring globally with regional manufacturers developing their own approaches to large-scale visualization solutions.

1985 – Sony Jumbotron
Sony introduced the JumboTron, which quickly became one of the most recognizable large-screen video display systems in the world. Using Sony’s Trinitron CRT technology adapted for large-format applications, the JumboTron offered enhanced brightness and color reproduction compared to earlier systems. The name “JumboTron” became so iconic that it entered the popular lexicon as a generic term for any large video screen. Sony’s entry into this market validated the commercial viability of large-format displays and helped standardize their use in sports arenas and public venues.

1985 – Videowall Processing introduced
In the 1980’s there were CRTs that were suitably large and cheap enough for people to start considering building arrays of displays and there was a need for processing to scale an image across those displays. 

1987 – First Commercial TFT Active Matrix LCDs
Sharp Corporation introduced the first commercially viable thin-film transistor (TFT) active-matrix LCD displays. This technology provided dramatically improved image quality over passive-matrix LCDs by giving each pixel its own transistor, allowing for faster response times and better contrast. TFT technology would eventually become the dominant LCD approach, enabling everything from laptop displays to large-format screens. This fundamental advancement underpinned the later development of LCD-based large displays like the Philips Nitstar.

1987 – First True Color LED Display
The first true color LED display was demonstrated, using newly developed technologies to overcome previous limitations in blue LED brightness and efficiency. While still primitive by modern standards, this demonstration proved the concept of full-color LED displays that would eventually replace CRT-based systems like Diamond Vision and JumboTron. The development of more efficient LED technology throughout this period laid essential groundwork for the LED video walls that would become ubiquitous in the 21st century.

1988 – Plasma Display Improvements
Significant advancements in plasma display panel (PDP) technology occurred during this period, with improved efficiency and color reproduction making plasma a viable competitor for large-format applications. Fujitsu and other manufacturers invested heavily in plasma research, which would lead to the first consumer plasma television sets in the late 1990s. These improvements in plasma technology offered another alternative to CRT-based systems for large displays, providing better image quality in a flatter form factor.

1989 – Pioneer Projection Cubes
Pioneer introduced modular projection cube technology that allowed for the creation of large video walls from individual rear-projection units. Each self-contained cube could be combined with others to create scalable display walls of virtually any size or configuration. This technology became particularly important for control rooms, broadcast studios, and corporate environments where large, continuous display surfaces were needed but outdoor-focused technologies like Diamond Vision were impractical. Projection cubes offered higher resolution than CRT-based large displays and would remain an important display technology through the early 2000s.

1990 – Philips Nitstar (LCD Based Outdoor Screen)
Philips introduced the Nitstar system, one of the first large outdoor displays based on LCD rather than CRT technology. This represented a significant shift in the evolution of large-format displays, pointing toward the eventual transition from bulky, power-hungry CRT-based systems to flatter, more energy-efficient technologies. While early large-format LCD systems had limitations in brightness and viewing angle compared to CRT-based counterparts, they signaled the beginning of a major technological transition that would accelerate throughout the 1990s as LCD technology improved.

The creation of the modern large screen display market (1991 – 2000)

1991 – Nichia Patent on Commercially Viable Blue LED
Nichia Corporation filed a crucial patent for blue LED technology, representing the culmination of years of research led by engineer Shuji Nakamura. This patent laid the groundwork for what would become one of the most significant breakthroughs in display technology history. Unlike previous attempts at blue LEDs that suffered from low brightness and poor efficiency, Nichia’s approach using gallium nitride (GaN) materials promised commercial viability. This development was critical because efficient blue LEDs were the missing piece needed to create full-color LED displays, as red and green LEDs had already been perfected.

1991 – Sharp Introduces First “wall mount” LCD TV
Japan’s Sharp Corporation introduced the first commercial TV using Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) LCD technology in 1991. This 8.6-inch LCD TV was a milestone in flat-panel display development. Sharp’s advancement highlighted how Japanese companies continued to push boundaries in consumer display products. 

1990 – Chinese LED Display Factories 
LED display manufacturing in China developed in parallel with LED display manufacturing elsewhere which adds important context to the “sudden” domination of the LED market by Chinese companies in the period following 2014. Companies like Lopu, QS-Tech, and BOE were early adopters of the technology although BOE exited the business to focus on LCD displays. Other companies such as Desay, Kindwin, LianTronics, Leyard, AOTO, InfiLED, and others continued this expansion creating the large ecosystem of LED component and display manufacturers that exists now. 

1992 – Akami LISA Super Vision Install Outdoors in Tokyo / Cree Blue LED
The Akami LISA Super Vision display was installed in Tokyo, becoming one of the first outdoor installations to incorporate early blue LED technology. This installation coincided with Cree’s advances in blue LED technology, which while still limited in brightness, demonstrated the potential for full-color outdoor LED displays in urban environments. This marked an important milestone in Japan’s leadership in display technology innovation, particularly in public digital signage that would eventually transform urban landscapes worldwide.

1993 – Nichia Introduces High Luminance Blue LED
After years of dedicated research often conducted against the wishes of company management, Shuji Nakamura and his team at Nichia Corporation achieved a breakthrough with the introduction of the first commercially viable high-brightness blue LED. Using gallium nitride (GaN) semiconductor materials with a novel production method, Nakamura created blue LEDs that were orders of magnitude brighter than previous attempts. This innovation earned Nakamura the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 (shared with Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano), acknowledging the revolutionary impact of this technology that would eventually enable white LED lighting and transform display technologies worldwide.

1994 – Nichia Introduces High Luminance True Green LED
Building on their blue LED breakthrough, Nichia Corporation unveiled high-luminance true green LEDs in 1994. This development completed the RGB (red, green, blue) trio of high-brightness LEDs necessary for full-color displays. Unlike previous “green” LEDs that produced yellowish-green light, these true green LEDs expanded the color gamut possible in LED displays. The introduction of both high-brightness blue and true green LEDs within a short timeframe accelerated the development of full-color LED display technology, setting the stage for a revolution in electronic displays across numerous applications.

1995 – Fremont Street Experience (Conventional Lamp Based)
The Fremont Street area in Las Vegas was famous for its vibrant neon signs and casino displays, earning the nickname “Glitter Gulch.” Although the Fremont Street Experience as we know it today (with its LED canopy) wasn’t built until the 2000’s, the original conventional lamp-based displays and neon signs of this era established this area as an iconic display of light and color, demonstrating how multiple display elements could create an immersive environment.

1995 – Full Color LED Video Displays Now Possible
With the successful commercialization of high-brightness blue, green, and red LEDs, full-color LED video displays became technically possible for the first time. This watershed moment in display technology marked the beginning of LED’s eventual dominance in large-format displays. While early full-color LED displays were expensive and limited in resolution by the standards of the day, they offered unprecedented brightness, viewing angles, and durability compared to other technologies. This capability would transform outdoor advertising, sports venues, and public information displays over the coming years.

1996 – LED Video Walls Emerge
LED (Light Emitting Diode) video wall technology began to gain significant market traction as improvements in LED brightness, reliability, and cost made them viable for both indoor and outdoor large-format displays. LED walls offered advantages in brightness, durability, and modularity over other large-format display technologies, eventually becoming the dominant technology for stadium displays, outdoor advertising, and large-format information displays. Companies such as Lighthouse, Opto Tech, QS Tech, Saco, and others were early adopters of LED display technology. 

1997 – First Commercial Plasma TV
Fujitsu introduced the first commercial plasma display panel television, offering a flat-panel alternative to bulky CRT televisions. Plasma technology allowed for much larger screen sizes than early LCDs and provided better contrast ratios and viewing angles. This technology would become especially important for large-format displays before large-size LCD panels became economically viable.

1997 – Opto Tech LED display with blue Nichia LED
Large Screen Video introduced Opto Tech’s LED display product with the Nichia blue to the US rental market, expanding the availability of large-format display technology for temporary installations and events. This Taiwanese-manufactured display highlights the early influence of Asian manufacturers in the growth of the LED market. ASAP in Dallas had Opto Tech LED display with yellow green by the end of 1996. The recognition that the green LED in the RGB group was shifted yellow was not widely recognized until good blue LED chips became available, and this is an important lesson in what is overlooked early in a display technology shift.  

1997 –  Invision Microsystems DCM15 Full Color LED Display
Invision Microsystems introduced the DCM15 full color LED display, an important advancement in modular LED display systems. This product exemplified the trend toward standardized, modular design in LED displays that simplified installation and maintenance. The system’s architecture allowed for flexible configurations while maintaining consistent color and brightness across the display, an important consideration for commercial applications where visual quality was paramount.

1997 – U2 Popmart Tour (Willie Williams/Mark Fisher)
The U2 PopMart tour featured a groundbreaking 52-meter wide by 17-meter high LED screen, the largest ever used for a touring production at that time. Designed by Willie Williams and architect Mark Fisher, this massive display contained approximately 150,000 LED pixels arranged in an open mesh configuration that could be rolled up for transport. While the proof of concept screen was built by Opto Tech the screen for the actual tour was built by SACO Technologies of Montreal. This ambitious application demonstrated how LED technology could be scaled to create enormous displays for entertainment purposes, even with relatively wide pixel spacing when viewed from a distance. The success of this high-profile application significantly raised awareness of LED display potential and influenced future large-format display designs. This project included many key people who would influence the industry going forward. 

1998 – Barco Punch Concept Shown at Photokina
Belgian display manufacturer Barco unveiled its Punch concept at Photokina, introducing advanced LED display technology for the professional market. This demonstration showcased Barco’s increasing focus on high-end LED displays for professional applications. As a European manufacturer, Barco’s entry into LED technology represented the globalization of the LED display industry beyond its Asian origins, bringing different design approaches and quality standards to the market.

1999 – Celine Dion Let’s Talk About Love Tour with LED Floor
Celine Dion’s Let’s Talk About Love tour featured an innovative LED floor, expanding the application of LED display technology to stage design. This creative use of LEDs demonstrated that display technology could be incorporated into unexpected surfaces, creating immersive environments rather than simply serving as background screens. The LED floor withstood the physical demands of performance while creating dynamic visual effects beneath the performers, pointing toward future applications in architectural and environmental design.

1999 – Lighthouse 102D 10 mm SMD Panel
Lighthouse Technologies introduced their 102 series featuring 10mm pitch Surface-Mounted Device (SMD) LED technology. This represented an important advancement in LED display resolution and form factor. By using SMD technology rather than traditional discrete LEDs, the displays could achieve finer pixel pitches and better visual performance. Hong Kong-based Lighthouse’s innovation exemplified how companies from across Asia were driving technological advancement in the LED display industry.

1999 – Barco DLite Outdoor Platform Launched
Barco launched the DLite outdoor LED display platform, creating a rugged, weather-resistant system for permanent outdoor installations. This product line addressed the growing demand for reliable outdoor digital signage that could operate in various environmental conditions. The DLite platform’s standardized approach to outdoor displays helped establish best practices for the industry in creating systems that could withstand exposure to elements while maintaining visual performance.

1999 – The Great “Panel Versus Tile” Debate 
The LED display industry has long been entrenched in a curious form of technical semantic posturing over whether to call the finished modular units of large-scale displays “panels” or “tiles.” This terminology dispute can be traced back to the early pioneers of large display technology, with Sony’s influential JumboTron typically using “panel” terminology, while competitors like Barco established “tile” as their preferred nomenclature. The debate reflects more than mere linguistic preference, but only by the smallest of margins. The philosophical difference lies in their primary purpose – tiles are surface treatments that protect and decorate, while panels are components that divide space or form the structure itself. Sony’s approach emphasized integrated panel systems and Barco championed modular tile-based architectures that could be mounted and easily reconfigured. This seemingly trivial distinction has persisted for decades, leading to tense standoffs at trade shows, with proponents on both sides defending their terminology as the industry standard. Industry standards bodies have so far declined to intervene. 

1999 – Brake Form Metal Box Adopted by LED Panel Industry
The LED panel industry widely adopted the brake form metal box as a standard housing for LED modules, representing an important development in the physical form factor of LED displays. This manufacturing technique allowed for stronger, more precise enclosures that improved durability while maintaining tight tolerances necessary for creating seamless multi-panel displays. This standardization of physical construction helped accelerate the adoption of LED technology by making it more reliable and easier to install and maintain.

2000 – Linsn incorporates 
Linsn went on to introduce a standardized data distribution system including a receiver card and a send card that could be adopted by manufacturers freeing them from the need to develop their own LED control solutions. This is one of the key pillars of the modular LED display architecture that allowed the industry to grow. Companies like NovaStar, Colorlight, Brompton, and Megapixel entered this market supporting manufacturers that want to build on top of established processing platforms.  

Innovations in Form and Technology (2001-2010)

2001 Lighthouse 5 mm with Osram COB LED
Lighthouse Technologies, based in Hong Kong, introduced a groundbreaking 5mm pitch display using Osram’s Chip-On-Board (COB) LED technology. This represented a significant advancement in display resolution for large-format screens, offering approximately four times the pixel density of previous 10mm systems. The partnership between Lighthouse and German-based Osram demonstrated the increasingly global nature of display technology development, combining Asian manufacturing efficiency with European component engineering. This product helped bring higher-resolution LED displays into more mainstream applications where viewers would be at closer distances.

2001 – Barco ILite Platform Launched
The Barco iLite was a high-resolution indoor LED display solution developed to address market demand for seamless indoor LED displays with excellent brightness, color uniformity, and contrast. Available in 6mm, 8mm, and 10mm pixel pitch configurations, the product utilized state-of-the-art SMD LED technology and featured an advanced heat management system.
The iLite incorporated 14-bit processing power and Barco’s proprietary System Color Signature technology for accurate color rendering. The product line evolved through several iterations, including XP and BK variants, with the BK model featuring enhanced contrast ratios and black LEDs. Purpose-built for rental and staging applications, the iLite was widely deployed at trade shows, exhibitions, and live events.

2003 – Element Labs introduces VersaTILE 
Element Labs’ VersaTILE was first and foremost a creative low resolution LED system designed to utilize LEDs but to hide the sources so that the pixels show only the light. The product brought together low resolution pixels with light guide technology to offer a homogenized output with a high fill factor. VersaTILE was the first Element Labs product and was controlled by the VersaDRIVE, a mapping LED processor that contained many firsts including the ability to rotate fixtures. Georg Roessler, the first Element Labs client,  introduced the product to Saab where it became a core part of the global tradeshow identity for three years. 

2004 – Element Labs VersaTUBE
Element Labs introduced the VersaTUBE system, a linear LED display product designed specifically for integration into stage and architectural environments. The tubular form factor allowed designers to outline structures, create floating lines of light and video, or build three-dimensional grid structures. This development was significant because it moved LED display technology beyond flat, rectangular screens and into more creative spatial applications. VersaTUBE became particularly popular in concert staging, television productions, and architectural installations where traditional flat panels would be impractical or visually limiting.

2004 –  Coldplay Speed of Sound Video with VersaTUBE
Coldplay’s music video for “Speed of Sound” featured an extensive VersaTUBE installation, demonstrating the creative possibilities of linear LED display technology in entertainment applications. The video received significant airplay and awards, exposing this display technology to a wider audience. This high-profile application showcased how LED display systems could create immersive environments beyond simple video playback, using patterns of light and abstract imagery to complement musical performances. The video’s visual aesthetic influenced numerous subsequent concert and stage designs.

2005 –  Saco V9 (Designed with Tait Towers and Nocturne Video) 
SACO Technologies, the Canadian firm that manufactured the LED displays for U2’s PopMart tour, collaborated with touring video company Nocturne Video to create the V9 LED display system specifically optimized for concert touring. This product combined rugged construction for road use with video performance tailored for entertainment applications. The development (driven in part by the collaboration between Ron Prosel at Nocturne and Adam Davis at Tait) demonstrated how manufacturers were increasingly designing products with input from entertainment industry experts to meet the specific demands of concert touring, including fast setup/teardown times, resilience to transportation, and consistent performance across varying venues.

2005 – Agon-Tech Plastic All in One LED Panel
Agon-Tech introduced a fully plastic-encased LED panel, representing a material innovation that reduced weight while improving durability. This development made LED displays more practical for temporary installations and touring applications where weight restrictions were critical. The shift from primarily metal construction to engineered plastics demonstrated how materials science was contributing to the evolution of display technology. This innovation helped accelerate the adoption of LED displays in applications where the weight of metal-framed systems had previously been prohibitive.

2005 – Paul McCartney Tour with V9
Paul McCartney’s world tour utilized SACO’s V9 LED system for massive backdrop displays, providing another high-profile showcase for large-format LED technology in concert applications. The tour demonstrated how LED technology could complement traditional staging while providing dynamic visual capabilities that static scenic elements couldn’t match, further establishing LED displays as standard components in major concert productions.

2006 – Element Labs STEALTH
Element Labs introduced the STEALTH display system on the Madonna tour, featuring improved transparency for applications where visibility through the screen was desirable. This product allowed LED displays to be installed in locations where blocking sightlines or natural light would be problematic, such as building facades or over stage areas. The semi-transparent nature of the STEALTH system expanded the potential installation locations for digital displays, integrating technology into environments where solid screens would be visually or physically intrusive. This development helped drive architectural applications of LED technology in building integration.

2006 – Daft Punk Pyramid Stage at Coachella
French electronic music duo Daft Punk debuted their iconic pyramid stage at the Coachella Music Festival, featuring a design by Martin Philips with integrated Element Labs VersaTUBE strips forming a three-dimensional display surface. This revolutionary stage design became one of the most influential concert productions of the decade, inspiring countless imitators and raising audience expectations for electronic music performances. The pyramid demonstrated how LED displays could transcend the rectangular frame to become sculptural elements that defined the entire stage environment, creating an immersive experience that transformed how audiences engaged with electronic music performances.

2008 – Beijing Olympic Stadium LED Integration
In preparation for the 2008 Olympics, Beijing’s National Stadium (the “Bird’s Nest”) incorporated extensive LED display and lighting systems in its architecture, representing one of China’s most ambitious display technology implementations. This project showcased China’s growing technological capabilities on the world stage while demonstrating how display technology could be integrated into monumental architecture. 

2008 – Die Cast Aluminum Monocoque Shell Popularized
The die-cast aluminum monocoque shell design became widely adopted across the LED display industry, providing structural integrity while simplifying manufacturing and assembly. This form factor innovation optimized the balance between weight, strength, and thermal management for LED displays. The manufacturing approach, drawing inspiration from other industries, allowed for more precise and consistent production of display panels. This standardization helped improve reliability while reducing production costs, contributing to the growing affordability and availability of high-quality LED display systems.

2008 – Element Labs COBRA
Element Labs introduced the COBRA system, an advanced modular LED solution featuring a die cast aluminum frame. COBRA represented a new generation of purpose-built LED products designed specifically for the entertainment and architectural markets rather than adapted from digital signage applications. Its mechanical design facilitated curved installations and complex geometries that were difficult to achieve with conventional flat panels. This product pushed forward the creative possibilities for integrating digital display technology into sophisticated stage and architectural designs. If you rearrange the letters in COBRA you get BARCO. 

2008 – Barco NX Series / Carbon Fiber
Barco introduced the NX series featuring carbon fiber construction, significantly reducing weight while maintaining structural integrity. This material innovation was particularly valuable for touring applications where weight restrictions and setup time were critical factors. The carbon fiber implementation demonstrated how advanced materials could address specific challenges in professional applications where conventional materials represented compromises in either weight or durability.

2008 – Barco NX-4 Install in Comcast Center Philadelphia
The installation of Barco’s NX-4 system at the Comcast Center in Philadelphia created one of the largest permanent indoor LED video walls at the time. This landmark installation demonstrated the architectural integration of LED technology into a corporate environment at an unprecedented scale. The project showcased how LED displays could become signature elements in commercial architecture, functioning simultaneously as branding, art, and information delivery systems. The installation’s success influenced numerous subsequent corporate lobby designs, establishing large-format LED displays as prestigious architectural features.

2008 – Nanolumens Flexible LED Display Patent 
Nanolumens secured a patent for a flexible LED display technology based on a novel driver topology, representing a form factor innovation that anticipated curved and bendable digital surfaces. This technology promised to free LED displays from the constraints of flat, rigid panels, opening new possibilities for integrating displays into curved architectural features. While initial implementations were limited and Nanolumens abandoned the original architecture, the concept of flexible displays did establish itself over the next few years. The innovation demonstrated how display technology was increasingly being driven by form factor considerations rather than purely by improvements in visual performance metrics.

2008 – DigiLED DigiFLEX Introduced at PLASA
DigiLED unveiled the DigiFLEX system at the PLASA entertainment technology show, offering a commercially available flexible LED display solution. This product provided designers with the ability to wrap LED displays around curved surfaces without visible faceting or segmentation. The introduction at PLASA, a leading entertainment industry trade show, emphasized the growing importance of creative applications in driving display technology innovation. This development helped establish flexible LED panels as practical tools for designers rather than just experimental technologies, accelerating adoption in custom installations.

2008 Saco Vlite (V-28) Designed by Nocturne with TAIT Touring Frame (2008)
SACO’s Vlite (V-28) system, designed in collaboration with Nocturne Video and featuring a custom touring frame by TAIT, exemplified the specialized evolution of concert touring display technology. This purpose-built system addressed the specific requirements of major touring productions, incorporating lessons learned from years of road experience. The collaboration between a display manufacturer, video specialist, and staging company demonstrated the increasingly integrated approach to entertainment technology development. This system was used on a number of high-profile concert tours, establishing new benchmarks for touring display performance and reliability.

2008 – Winvision 1875
Winvision introduced the 1875 LED display system, offering improved visual performance for both indoor and outdoor applications. This versatile system helped bridge the gap between dedicated indoor and outdoor products, providing rental companies with more flexible inventory options. The product represented the ongoing refinement of LED display technology as it matured into a standard tool for event production. The exceedingly minimal frames in this and other Winvision products would be a big influence on the next wave of LED displays. 

2009 – Gtek Flex
Chinese manufacturer Gtek introduced their Flex series, bringing flexible LED display technology to a broader market at more accessible price points. This product line represented China’s growing capability to innovate rather than simply manufacture designs developed elsewhere. The Gtek Flex accelerated the adoption of curved display surfaces by making the technology more affordable for mid-tier applications. This development illustrated how Chinese manufacturers were evolving from cost-oriented production to developing their own intellectual property and innovative products, reshaping the competitive landscape of the display industry.

2009 – Winvision 9375 
Winvision released the “Winvision 9” 9375 system. This product line joined a market where scenic designers were increasingly looking for larger display surfaces at resolutions that they could manage on camera and in arenas. A 9 mm screen fit that bill for many. The product was light weight and is one of the ingredients for the next wave of LED with a central spine and a light weight frame. 

2010 – Basictech FLio-11 
Basictech introduced the FLio-11 system, representing innovations in both form factor and visual performance for architectural applications. This product focused on seamless integration into building environments rather than standing out as obviously technological elements. The system exemplified the trend toward “invisible technology” where digital displays could be incorporated into architectural spaces without dominating the aesthetic. This approach helped expand LED display applications beyond overtly technological or commercial environments into more subtle architectural and artistic implementations.

The Move Toward Standard LED Products 

Market Transformation

This period witnessed LED display technology’s transition from specialized high-cost technology to mainstream visual medium across multiple industries. Prices fell dramatically while performance improved, expanding applications from premier venues to everyday environments. The market shifted from technology-driven to application-driven, with products increasingly optimized for specific use cases rather than general purposes. Chinese manufacturers evolved from OEM suppliers to market leaders, establishing brands that competed directly with established Western companies at all market tiers. This transformation fundamentally changed the industry’s structure, driving consolidation among Western manufacturers while creating new opportunities for specialized product development.

Technical Innovations

Key technical developments during this period included dramatic reductions in pixel pitch, bringing LED technology into close-viewing applications previously dominated by LCD and projection systems. Mechanical innovations improved ease of installation and maintenance, crucial factors in the rental and staging market’s adoption of LED technology. Power efficiency and thermal management improvements addressed operational costs and reliability concerns that had previously limited certain applications. These technical advancements collectively expanded LED display applications beyond traditional digital signage into architectural integration, immersive environments, and creative stage design, driving growth across multiple vertical markets.

Chinese Market Leadership

Chinese companies achieved dominant market positions during this period, combining manufacturing scale advantages with increasingly sophisticated engineering. Chinese companies shifted from pure manufacturing to complete product development, establishing independent brands that would come to dominate the market. 

2011 – PIXLED F-6 (manufactured by Absen)
The PIXLED F-6 represented a landmark collaboration between European display brand PIXLED and Chinese manufacturer Absen, featuring a 6mm pixel pitch suitable for both indoor and rental applications. This product exemplified the growing trend of Western brands partnering with Chinese manufacturing to achieve cost efficiency while maintaining performance standards expected in professional markets. The F-6 became particularly popular in corporate events and television productions where moderate viewing distances made the 6mm resolution an ideal balance between visual quality and cost. This partnership model would become increasingly common as the industry matured, blending European design philosophies with Chinese manufacturing capabilities.

2011 – Silicon Core Orchid 1.9 mm Panel
Silicon Core’s Orchid 1.9mm panel marked a significant step forward in fine-pitch LED technology for indoor applications, pushing high-resolution LED displays into spaces previously dominated by LCD and projection systems. This product targeted high-end corporate environments, broadcast studios, and command centers where pristine visual quality at close viewing distances was essential. The sub-2mm pixel pitch represented the industry’s accelerating move toward finer resolutions that could compete with traditional display technologies in indoor environments. Silicon Core, with offices in Asia, Europe, and North America, demonstrated how the LED industry was becoming truly global in both development and distribution.

2012 – WinVision Flexible LED Panel
WinVision’s Flexible LED panel brought practical adaptability to LED displays, allowing for curved and non-rectangular installations without visible segmentation. This product leveraged advancements in circuit board technology and manufacturing techniques to enable genuine flexibility while maintaining reliable operation. Designers could now implement curved and organic shapes in LED designs, moving beyond the rigid rectangular limitations of traditional panels. This flexibility opened new creative possibilities for architectural integration, retail environments, and stage design where geometric versatility enhanced the visual impact of installations.

2012 – DigiLED MC7 (manufactured through Infiled)

DigiLED’s MC7 panel, manufactured through a partnership with Chinese company Infiled, featured 7mm pixel pitch in a design optimized for the rental and staging market. This product exemplified the industry’s growing segmentation, with specific product lines optimized for the unique requirements of rental applications including tool-less assembly, edge protection, and simplified calibration. The MC7’s robust construction and reliable performance made it particularly popular for concert touring and corporate events. This partnership illustrated how Western companies were increasingly leveraging Chinese manufacturing while adding value through application-specific engineering and local support.

2012 – Absen A Series
Absen’s A Series established the Chinese manufacturer as a major global force in the LED display industry, offering reliable performance at competitive price points across multiple pixel pitches. This product line represented China’s evolution from low-cost manufacturing to design leadership, with innovations in thermal management, power efficiency, and mechanical construction. Absen’s rapid expansion with this product line demonstrated China’s growing dominance in LED manufacturing beyond simple OEM relationships, establishing Chinese brands as market leaders in their own right.

2012 – The ROE Magic Cube (MC) 
The MC series was a sturdy and versatile LED solution developed by Radiant Opto-Electronic (ROE Visual) that gained early success in the rental market. The series offered waterproof black LEDs and was available in multiple pixel pitch options including MC-5H (5.769mm), MC-7H (7.5mm), MC-12H (12.5mm), and MC-18H Hybrid (18mm with additional LED spotlights). The design incorporated multiple angle folding capabilities with compatible frame structures across the entire series for easy mix-and-match applications. The MC Series established ROE’s reputation for quality in the live events and touring market, with the MC-7H being particularly popular for outdoor stage applications due to its balance of visual performance and durability.

2012 – ESDlumen Smart
ESDlumen’s Smart series represented the growing competitiveness of mid-tier Chinese manufacturers in the global LED display market, offering solid performance metrics at aggressive price points. This product line featured standardized cabinet sizes compatible with common rigging systems, providing rental companies with cost-effective alternatives to premium Western brands. While not offering the same engineering refinements as top-tier products, the Smart series demonstrated how rapidly Chinese manufacturers were closing the quality gap while maintaining significant price advantages. This product line exemplified the ongoing commoditization of standard LED display technology, forcing established manufacturers to emphasize unique features or specialized optimizations.

2012 – Yestech MG2
Yestech’s MG2 series is notable for the unique mechanical design including a plastic frame. This exemplified China’s growing manufacturing capabilities in the LED display market, offering reliable performance for mainstream applications at competitive price points. This product line gained particular traction in advertising, retail, and corporate installations where budget considerations outweighed the need for premium engineering features. Yestech, founded in Shenzhen in 2003, is a good example of China’s domestic display industry evolution from manufacturing for customers in other markets to developing their own point of view and global market presence. The MG2’s success demonstrated how increased manufacturing scale and standardized engineering approaches were making LED display technology more accessible to a broader range of applications and markets.

2013 – ESDlumen ROCK
ESDLumen introduced the ROCK series (640mm x 640mm) as a modular LED display solution for the rental and staging market. Initially launched as a simplified design, the series evolved in 2014 with the addition of a central control box. The ROCK panels featured reinforced corners, protected connectors, and simplified locking systems specifically engineered to withstand the repeated assembly and disassembly cycles of touring and temporary installations.
The product built upon ESDLumen’s previous work with their Mini (480mm x 480mm) and Micro series panels, contributing to the industry’s shift toward purpose-built designs for specific applications. The ROCK series represented part of the broader evolution in modular display technology, where manufacturers were refining their approaches with increasing focus on practical features like simplified mounting, enhanced durability, and standardized components.

2013 – Everbrighten BR5C
Everbrighten’s BR5C targeted high-end rental and staging applications where weight restrictions and handling ergonomics were critical considerations. The design addressed practical challenges in temporary installations, particularly in venues with limited rigging capacity or manual handling requirements. The product integrated elements that were becoming commonplace including a central power box and novel adjustable side. Everbrighten, based in South Korea, demonstrated how global LED manufacturers were increasingly competing on innovation rather than merely price, incorporating advanced materials and engineering techniques previously associated with brands such as Barco. 

2013 – Revolution Display FM50 Flexmesh
Revolution Display’s FM50 Flexmesh combined LED technology with flexible, semi-transparent mesh substrates, creating displays that could be installed over irregular surfaces or curved architectural features. This innovative product targeted creative applications in retail, themed entertainment, and stage design where traditional rigid panels would be impractical. The mesh construction allowed for air flow, light transmission, and flexibility without sacrificing visual performance. By prioritizing creative applications over conventional metrics like maximum resolution, the FM50 exemplified how display technology was evolving to meet the needs of designers rather than merely improving technical specifications.

2013 – The BOX video by Bot & Dolly
This video integrated projection mapping, robots, and robot mounted camera. For a period of time the quality of this project was something that everyone in the live production industry was discussing. Moving screens and tracking had been done previously. Managing the point of view and perspective matching the content to the camera position was all novel and pointed the way towards greater integration between cameras and displays. 

2014 – ROE Black Onyx
ROE Visual’s Black Onyx series established new benchmarks for premium rental LED displays, featuring very good color performance, contrast ratio, and mechanical precision. This product line targeted high-end concert tours, broadcast environments, and prestigious corporate events where visual quality could not be compromised. The Black Onyx’s success, particularly in high-profile entertainment applications, cemented ROE’s position as a leader in the premium rental market. This product demonstrated how certain market segments remained willing to pay  premiums for quality, even as average LED display prices continued to decline through manufacturing scale and competition.

2015 – WinVision AIR
WinVision’s AIR series prioritized extreme lightweight construction for applications where traditional LED panels would exceed weight restrictions. This product utilized innovative materials and minimalist frame designs to reduce weight while maintaining sufficient structural integrity for temporary installations. The AIR series found particular success in applications with restrictive load limits, including suspended installations and touring productions needing to minimize transportation weight. This specialized product demonstrated the industry’s growing sophistication in addressing specific use cases rather than pursuing one-size-fits-all designs, reflecting the maturing market’s increasing segmentation into specialized product categories.

Author’s note: This is intended to be expansive and yet it is incomplete and by no means comprehensive. This document will be updated occasionally and additional information is appreciated. Of particular interest is documentation that can be shared.

There will also be a document containing links to other documents so of which I have shared previously.